Knowledge Appeals

Knowledge appeals involve the use of strong arguments on the part of the advertiser and careful thinking on the part of the consumer. These are hallmarks of the central route to persuasion, which involves actively attending to information that is relevant (central) to the merits of a product. In contrast, the other appeals outlined in the table above typically involve the peripheral route to persuasion, in which consumers rely on a simple cue (e.g., brand name reputation, likeable spokespersons, cute babies or animals) to form an attitude quickly and easily.

Promotion-focused knowledge appeals
Ads in this category attempt to persuade consumers using relevant factual information and logical arguments. The information can pertain to key product attributes or benefits provided by these attributes, and it is often desirable to allow consumers to draw their own conclusions based on this information. Because consumers need to think about the information to draw their own conclusions, promotion-focused knowledge appeals must be thought provoking or targeted toward consumers who are likely to think about the ads.

Strong, logical arguments often involve syllogistic reasoning. A typical syllogistic argument might state the following: Brand A has Attribute X; products with Attribute X provide Benefit Y; therefore Brand A provides Benefit Y. More concretely, Red Bull contains B vitamins; B vitamins give you energy; therefore Red Bull gives you energy.

Of course, syllogisms are not the only type of logical arguments used by advertisers. Comparative advertising can also provide a compelling reason for believing that an advertised brand is better than other brands. In comparative advertising, a target brand is compared with one or more competitors on at least one attribute or benefit. For example, a Vicks 44 ad claimed that Vicks 44 relieves sore throat pain for up to 8 hours, whereas Robitussin works for only 4 hours. Logically, this claim implies that Vicks 44 is better than Robitussin.

Prevention-focused knowledge appeals
Whereas promotion-focused ads emphasize the attainment of good outcomes, prevention-focused ads emphasize the avoidance of bad outcomes. With respect to knowledge appeals, consumers typically seek to avoid ambiguity, uncertainty, and confusion. Thus, prevention-focused knowledge appeals use these qualities to reduce resistance to persuasion and to encourage consumers to think deeply about the implications of advertised messages. For example, a mystery ad is one that withholds the name of the advertised brand until the end of the ad. Often the consumer has no idea what brand, or sometimes even what product, is being advertised until the end. This technique is novel and attention grabbing, leading consumers to form particularly strong category-brand associations in memory when the brand name is finally revealed. Strong category-brand associations in memory lead consumers to think about the brand automatically whenever the product category comes to mind.

Some ads use surprise or confusion to encourage consumers to think about information that they would otherwise ignore. In one experiment, door-to-door salespeople asked consumers to buy a box of Christmas cards to support a local charity (Davis & Knowles, 1999). In the control condition, consumers were told, “The price is $3. It’s a bargain!” In the confusing condition, consumers were told, “The price is 300 pennies – that’s $3. It’s a bargain!” Twice as many cards were purchased in the confusing condition compared to the control condition, suggesting that confusion reduces resistance to persuasion and increases suggestibility.

Whether promotion- or prevention-focused, the best way to influence attitudes that serve a knowledge function is to focus on facts and arguments and to anticipate how consumers will use these facts and arguments while thinking and reasoning about an ad. Knowledge appeals work best for complex products with a large number of attributes.

Value-Expressive Appeals

Some attitudes help us to communicate our traits, preferences, and interests to others, which helps social interactions go more smoothly. Attitudes that serve the value-expressive function help consumers manage the impressions that others form of them and meet other consumers with similar tastes and interests.

Consumers who are highly aware of and concerned with such attitude expressions are the most susceptible to image appeals and celebrity advertising. Image appeals emphasize the uniqueness of special people who buy a particular brand, and celebrity advertising associates a brand with famous spokespeople who are well-liked by the target market. Interestingly, consumers continue to believe that celebrities really like the products they endorse even when they are reminded that celebrities are well-paid for their endorsements. This finding is important because consumers form more favorable attitudes toward advertised products when they believe that celebrities actually like (vs. pretend to like) the products they endorse.

Prevention-focused value-expressive appeals
Whereas promotion-focused value-expressive appeals use attractive and likeable models and celebrities, prevention-focused value-expressive appeals use unattractive and dislikeable actors. These sad, unattractive actors often wear ugly clothes, act incompetent, and use products that are completely ineffective (e.g., cooking utensils that fall apart during use). Consumer psychologists sometimes refer to these as nerd alert ads. These ads work by showing “nerds” using ineffective competing brands and then showing attractive actors using the advertised brand with great success. Nerd alert ads are particularly effective for image-conscious consumers who are concerned with avoiding bad outcomes. For example, nerd alert ads are useful for persuading teenagers to avoid smoking and drug use. Not surprisingly, image-conscious teens are more influenced by losers smoking and cool kids abstaining than by boring facts and statistics regarding the harmful effects of smoking and drug use.

To summarize, image is everything for value-expressive ads. Promotion-focused value-expressive ads use attractive actors and celebrities that consumers want to emulate. One way of emulating attractive and likable people is to use the same products they use. Prevention-focused value-expressive ads use unattractive actors and celebrities that consumers do not wish to emulate. One way of not emulating these individuals is to avoid the products they use. Value-expressive ads work best for products that are used publicly.

Ego-Defensive Appeals

Some attitudes serve a self-protective, self-enhancing, or ego-defensive function. Religious and political beliefs typically fall in this category, and consequently, these beliefs are rarely swayed by facts and figures (knowledge appeals), image (value-expressive appeals) or hedonistic concerns (adjustment appeals). Attitudes toward security systems, insurance policies, guns, and health-related products are also influenced by ego-defensive appeals. Such appeals typically involve the use of defense mechanisms like wishful thinking (good things will happen to you and bad things will not), denial (refusing to believe what you don’t want to believe), and repression (forgetting things you don’t want to think about), which help people feel safe from threats and superior to others.

Promotion-focused ego-defensive appeals
Authority figures (e.g., political and religious leaders) and experts (e.g., doctors, lawyers, scientists) are useful for changing ego-defensive attitudes when consumers are promotion-focused. People are often blindly obedient to authority, particularly when they seek spiritual, political, financial, or security-related guidance. Advertisers can take advantage of this obedience by hiring actors who look like leaders and experts. For instance, they might hire an actor who plays an expert on television or use props to make an actor look like a scientist (white lab coat) or a successful executive (mahogany desk, New York City skyline). Many ads involve the strategic placement of a large bookshelf filled with scholarly books behind a politician or lawyer to make the individual look more intelligent.

Prevention-focused ego-defensive appeals
Fear appeals increase the salience of negative outcomes to encourage consumers to work harder to avoid these outcomes. Because fear is a powerful emotion, it can be a strong motivator for behavior change, particularly when negative outcomes seem likely or when a specific change of behavior (e.g., quitting smoking) seems useful. To be maximally effective, fear appeals must convince consumers to change their behaviors and to do so persistently. This is most likely when attitudes serve an ego-defensive function and when consumers have a prevention orientation.

In short, ego-defensive ads should be targeted toward insecure consumers. Promotion-focused ego-defensive ads use trusted authority figures and experts to help consumers feel safe and secure. In contrast, prevention-focused ego-defensive ads use fear appeals to make consumers feel threatened and motivate them to buy products that will help them feel safe and secure. These ads work best for health and protection-related products.

Adjustment Appeals

The pleasure/pain principle can be very persuasive when consumers are concerned about approaching desired outcomes or avoiding undesired outcomes. Consumers buy some types of products simply because the products taste or feel good, and likewise they avoid some types of products simply because they taste or feel bad. Complex arguments and logical thinking (knowledge appeals), the image of consumers who use this type of product (value-expressive appeals) and concerns about safety or self-esteem (ego-defensive appeals) are largely irrelevant for these types of products.

Promotion-focused adjustment appeals
Hedonic products that are “guilty pleasures” should be advertised using promotion-focused adjustment appeals. These include high calorie foods and beverages (e.g., ice cream, beer), comfortable but unattractive clothes, and entertainment products that consumers typically don’t want to admit they like (e.g., gossip magazines). Interestingly, promotion-focused adjustment appeals are also persuasive for utilitarian products like air conditioners. Air conditioners keep consumers cool and comfortable (pleasure). However, they do not really serve any other function, and most consumers do not care what their air conditioners look like (image). Thus, for these products, promotion-focused adjustment appeals are more effective than value-expressive appeals.

Prevention-focused adjustment appeals
Pain relievers like aspirin, Tylenol, and antacids are advertised most effectively using prevention-focused adjustment appeals. No complex arguments, no celebrities, and no experts are necessary. Instead, most prevention-focused adjustment ads are unpleasant to watch and, therefore, are difficult to ignore. An actor typically grimaces in pain, pops a pill, and then (presto!) the pain goes away. These products do not promote good health or longevity, but they make unpleasant symptoms go away. Whereas simple benefits (e.g., saving money, feeling good) are emphasized in promotion-focused adjustment ads, ways of avoiding simple costs (e.g., losing money, feeling bad) are emphasized in prevention-focused adjustment ads.

To summarize, promotion-focused adjustment ads emphasize benefits to encourage consumers to buy advertised brands. In contrast, prevention-focused adjustment ads emphasize costs to encourage consumers to avoid competing brands and to buy the advertised brand instead. These ads work best for hedonistic and utilitarian products.

Conclusion - What kinds of advertisements are effective under what circumstances?

When consumers are motivated to be confident and certain that they are buying the best brand, factual appeals, logical arguments, and comparative advertising can be highly effective. When they wish to impress others, image appeals and celebrity advertising can be very persuasive. When they are motivated to feel protected and safe, authority figures and expert endorsers are good choices. When consumers are motivated to seek pleasure or enjoyment, promotion-focused hedonic appeals are appropriate. Conversely, when consumers are motivated to avoid uncertainty, it is useful to employ mystery ads, surprise, and confusion. When they wish to avoid conveying a negative impression of themselves to others, nerd alert ads can be used. When they are concerned with avoiding danger, fear appeals can be quite effective. And finally, when consumers are motivated to avoid pain or discomfort, prevention-focused hedonic appeals should be used. Matching advertising techniques to consumers’ attitude functions and regulatory orientations is a key component of successful advertising.

References

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Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1998). Matching versus mismatching attitude functions: Implications for scrutiny of persuasive messages. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 227-240.